10.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 657
10.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 659
10.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 661
10.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 664
10.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 666
10.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 667
10.3.8 Anthropic Waste 671
10.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 672
10.4 Organic Sediments 675
10.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 676
10.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 678
10.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 679
10.6 Chemical Deposits 679
10.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 680
10.6.2 Carbonates 683
10.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 687
10.6.3.1 Halides 690
10.6.3.2 Sulfates 690
10.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 693
10.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 694
10.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 696
10.6.4 Secondary Ice 696
10.7 Speleothems 698
10.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 702
10.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 712
10.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 718
10.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 718
10.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 725
10.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 728
10.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 731
10.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 732
10.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 733
10.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 736
10.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 736
10.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium 738
10.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 740
10.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium 741
10.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon 742
10.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 742
10.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 743
10.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 743
10.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 744
10.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 745
11 Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 762
11.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 762
11.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 765
11.2.1 Influence of Lithology 765
11.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 765
11.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 766
11.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 766
11.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 766
11.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 768
11.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 769
11.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 771
11.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 771
11.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 772
11.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 772
11.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 773
11.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 775
11.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 776
11.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 777
11.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 779
11.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 782
11.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 784
11.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 785
11.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 786
11.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 792
11.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 794
11.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 797
11.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 805
11.4.7 Coastal Mixing 814
11.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 823
11.5.1 Halite Caves 823
11.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves 824
11.5.3 Quartzite Caves 830
11.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 832
11.6 Condensation–Corrosion 834
11.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 839
11.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 839
11.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 840
11.7.3 Cave Maturation 841
11.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842
Index 857
Description Karst Hydrogeology, Geomorphology and Caves
A Comprehensive Resource Covering All Aspects of Karst Hydrogeology, Geomorphology, and Caves
This essential book covers all physical, chemical, and geological aspects of karst science. It reviews current knowledge on hydrogeology, geomorphology and caves in karst, based on the vast existing literature and investigations carried out by the authors worldwide. The different topics are profusely illustrated with color figures and images from all continents and climates, showing the scientific and aesthetic appeal of karst environments.
The book covers in a systematic way the significant features of karst rocks, the chemistry and kinetics of their dissolution, the rate and distribution of karst denudation, the unique hydrogeology of karst terrains, the landforms endemic to karst, the morphology of caves and their diverse sedimentary records, and the multiple processes that lead to the formation of underground voids. Overall, the work reflects the increasing recognition of karst as a fundamental part of the Earth’s dynamic systems, and helps readers understand this multidisciplinary field from a holistic and nuts-and-bolts perspective. Some of the ideas discussed within the book include:
How karst is gaining importance for human development, because of its valuable resources (groundwater) and associated environmental problems (impacts and hazards) The enormous technological developments achieved in recent years Recent major breakthroughs in the field and their influence on other scientific disciplines The central role played by karst science for understanding and mitigating global environmental issues (global warming, depletion of resources, human-induced hazards)
For all scientists working in karst, and for students and lecturers of karst-related programs, this book serves as a valuable all-in-one source. It is also a valuable resource for professional hydrogeologists, the petroleum industry, environmental geologists, and of course speleologists, the last true geographic explorers in the world.
About the Author
Jo De Waele is Full Professor in the Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna, Italy.
Francisco Gutiérrez is Full Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Zaragoza, Spain.