How to design and evaluate research in education / Jack R. Fraenkel, Norman E. Walle

Contents
PA R T 1 Introduction to Research 1
1 The Nature of Research 2
Interactive and Applied Learning 3
Some Examples of Educational Concerns 3
Why Research Is of Value 4
Ways of Knowing 4
Types of Research 7
General Research Types 14
Critical Analysis of Research 16
The Basics of Educational Research 25
A Brief Overview of the Research Process 19
Main Points 21
Key Terms 22
For Discussion 22
Notes 22
Research Exercise 1 23
Problem Sheet 1 23
PA R T 2 The Basics of Educational Research 25
2 The Research Problem 26
Interactive and Applied Learning 27
What Is a Research Problem? 27
Research Questions 27
Characteristics of Good Research Questions 29
Main Points 35
Key Terms 35
For Discussion 35
Research Exercise 2 36
Problem Sheet 2 36
3 Variables and Hypotheses 37
Interactive and Applied Learning 38
The Importance of Studying Relationships 38
Variables 39
Hypotheses 45
Main Points 48
Key Terms 49
For Discussion 49
Research Exercise 3 51
Problem Sheet 3 51
4 Ethics and Research 52
Interactive and Applied Learning 53
Some Examples of Unethical Practice 53
A Statement of Ethical Principles 53
Protecting Participants from Harm 55
Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data 56
Should Subjects Be Deceived? 56
Three Examples Involving Ethical Concerns 57
Research with Children 59
Regulation of Research 60
Main Points 63
For Discussion 64
Notes 64
Research Exercise 4 65
Problem Sheet 4 65
5 Locating and Reviewing the Literature 66
Interactive and Applied Learning 67
The Value of a Literature Review 67
Types of Sources 67
Steps Involved in a Literature Search 68
Doing a Computer Search 76
Writing the Literature Review Report 84
Main Points 85
Key Terms 86
For Discussion 86
Notes 87
Research Exercise 5 88
Problem Sheet 5 88
6 Sampling 89
Interactive and Applied Learning 90
What Is a Sample? 90
Random Sampling Methods 93
Nonrandom Sampling Methods 96
A Review of Sampling Methods 99
Sample Size 101
External Validity: Generalizing from a Sample 102
Main Points 105
Key Terms 106
For Discussion 106
Research Exercise 6 108
Problem Sheet 6 108
7 Instrumentation 109
Interactive and Applied Learning 110
What Are Data? 110
Means of Classifying Data-Collection
Instruments 112
Examples of Data-Collection Instruments 116
Types of Scores 134
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced
Instruments 136
Measurement Scales 137
Preparing Data for Analysis 140
Main Points 141
Key Terms 143
For Discussion 143
Notes 144
Research Exercise 7 145
Problem Sheet 7 145
8 Validity and Reliability 146
Interactive and Applied Learning 147
The Importance of Valid Instruments 147
Validity 147
Reliability 154
Main Points 162
Key Terms 162
For Discussion 163
Notes 163
Research Exercise 8 164
Problem Sheet 8 164
9 Internal Validity 165
Interactive and Applied Learning 166
What Is Internal Validity? 166
Threats to Internal Validity 167
How Can a Researcher Minimize These Threats to
Internal Validity? 179
Main Points 180
Key Terms 181
For Discussion 181
Note 181
Research Exercise 9 182
Problem Sheet 9 182
PA R T 3 Data Analysis 183
10 Descriptive Statistics 184
Interactive and Applied Learning 185
Statistics Versus Parameters 185
Two Fundamental Types of Numerical Data 185
Techniques for Summarizing Quantitative Data 187
Techniques for Summarizing Categorical Data 207
Main Points 211
Key Terms 212
For Discussion 212
Research Exercise 10 214
Problem Sheet 10 214
11 Inferential Statistics 215
Interactive and Applied Learning 216
What Are Inferential Statistics? 216
The Logic of Inferential Statistics 217
Hypothesis Testing 223
Practical Versus Statistical Significance 226
Inference Techniques 228
Main Points 237
Key Terms 238
For Discussion 239
Research Exercise 11 240
Problem Sheet 11 240
12 Statistics in Perspective 241
Interactive and Applied Learning 242
Approaches to Research 242
Comparing Groups: Quantitative Data 243
Relating Variables Within a Group: Quantitative
Data 247
Comparing Groups: Categorical Data 251
Relating Variables Within a Group: Categorical
Data 253
A Recap of Recommendations 255
Main Points 255
Key Terms 256
For Discussion 256
Research Exercise 12 257
Problem Sheet 12 257
PA R T 4 Quantitative Research Methodologies 259
13 Experimental Research 260
Interactive and Applied Learning 261
The Uniqueness of Experimental Research 261
Essential Characteristics of Experimental
Research 262
Control of Extraneous Variables 264
Group Designs in Experimental Research 264
Control of Threats to Internal Validity:
A Summary 276
Evaluating the Likelihood of a Threat to
Internal Validity in Experimental
Studies 277
Control of Experimental Treatments 280
An Example of Experimental
Research 281
Research Report 282
Analysis of the Study 292
Main Points 293
Key Terms 295
For Discussion 295
Notes 296
Research Exercise 13 297
Problem Sheet 13 297
14 Single-Subject Research 298
Interactive and Applied Learning 299
Essential Characteristics of Single-Subject
Research 299
Single-Subject Designs 299
Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Subject
Research 305
An Example of Single-Subject Research 311
Research Report 312
Analysis of the Study 323
Main Points 325
Key Terms 326
For Discussion 326
15 Correlational Research 327
Interactive and Applied Learning 328
The Nature of Correlational Research 328
Purposes of Correlational Research 329
Basic Steps in Correlational Research 335
What Do Correlation Coefficients
Tell Us? 337
Threats to Internal Validity in Correlational
Research 337
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in
Correlational Studies 341
An Example of Correlational Research 343
Research Report 344
Analysis of the Study 357
Main Points 359
Key Terms 360
For Discussion 361
Notes 361
16 Causal-Comparative
Research 362
Interactive and Applied Learning 363
What Is Causal-Comparative Research? 363
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Research 366
Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative
Research 367
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-
Comparative Studies 369
Data Analysis 370
Associations Between Categorical Variables 372
An Example of Causal-Comparative Research 373
Research Report 373
Analysis of the Study 384
Main Points 386
For Discussion 388
Note 388
17 Survey Research 389
Interactive and Applied Learning 390
What Is a Survey? 390
Why Are Surveys Conducted? 390
Types of Surveys 391
Survey Research and Correlational Research 392
Steps in Survey Research 392
Nonresponse 401
Problems in the Instrumentation Process in Survey
Research 404
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Survey
Research 404
Data Analysis in Survey Research 404
An Example of Survey Research 404
Research Report 405
Analysis of the Study 414
Main Points 416
Key Terms 417
For Discussion 417
Notes 418
18 The Nature of Qualitative Research 420
Interactive and Applied Learning 421
What Is Qualitative Research? 421
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research 422
Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Qualitative
as Opposed to Quantitative Research 423
Postmodernism 424
Steps in Qualitative Research 425
Approaches to Qualitative Research 427
Generalization in Qualitative Research 432
Internal Validity in Qualitative Research 433
Ethics and Qualitative Research 433
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Reconsidered 434
Main Points 435
Key Terms 436
For Discussion 437
Notes 437
19 Observation and Interviewing 439
Interactive and Applied Learning 440
Observation 440
Interviewing 445
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research 453
An Example of Qualitative Research 454
Research Report 455
Analysis of the Study 466
Main Points 468
Key Terms 469
For Discussion 469
Notes 470
20 Content Analysis 471
Interactive and Applied Learning 472
What Is Content Analysis? 472
Some Applications 473
Categorization in Content Analysis 474
Steps Involved in Content Analysis 474
An Illustration of Content Analysis 480
Using the Computer in Content Analysis 480
Advantages of Content Analysis 483
Disadvantages of Content Analysis 483
An Example of a Content Analysis Study 484
Research Report 484
Analysis of the Study 495
Main Points 496
Key Terms 498
For Discussion 498
Notes 498
PA R T 5 Introduction to Qualitative Research 419
21 Ethnographic Research 500
Interactive and Applied Learning 501
What Is Ethnographic Research? 501
Ethnographic Concepts 503
Sampling in Ethnographic Research 505
Do Ethnographic Researchers Use Hypotheses? 505
Data Collection in Ethnographic Research 506
Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research 510
Roger Harker and His Fifth-Grade Classroom 512
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic
Research 513
An Example of Ethnographic Research 514
Research Report 514
Analysis of the Study 528
Main Points 530
Key Terms 531
For Discussion 531
Notes 532
PA R T 6 Qualitative Research Methodologies 499
22 Historical Research 533
Interactive and Applied Learning 534
What Is Historical Research? 534
Steps Involved in Historical Research 535
Data Analysis in Historical Research 540
Generalization in Historical Research 540
Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical
Research 541
An Example of Historical Research 542
Research Report 543
Analysis of the Study 550
Main Points 551
Key Terms 552
For Discussion 553
Notes 553
PA R T 7 Mixed-Methods Studies 555
23 Mixed-Methods
Research 556
Interactive and Applied Learning 557
What Is Mixed-Methods Research? 557
Why Do Mixed-Methods Research? 558
Drawbacks of Mixed-Methods Studies 558
A (Very) Brief History 559
Types of Mixed-Methods Designs 560
Other Mixed-Methods Research Design Issues 562
Steps in Conducting a Mixed-Methods Study 563
Evaluating a Mixed-Methods Study 564
Ethics in Mixed-Methods Research 565
Summary 565
An Example of Mixed-Methods Research 565
Research Report 566
Analysis of the Study 580
Main Points 583
Key Terms 584
For Discussion 585
Notes 585
PA R T 8 Research by Practitioners 587
24 Action Research 588
Interactive and Applied Learning 589
What Is Action Research? 589
Types of Action Research 590
Steps in Action Research 592
Similarities and Differences Between Action
Research and Formal Quantitative and
Qualitative Research 594
The Advantages of Action Research 596
Some Hypothetical Examples of Practical Action
Research 596
An Example of Action Research 601
A Published Example of Action Research 602
Research Report 603
Analysis of the Study 610
Main Points 611
Key Terms 612
For Discussion 612
Notes 613
PA R T 9 Writing Research Proposals and Reports 615
25 Preparing Research Proposals and Reports 616
Interactive and Applied Learning 617
The Research Proposal 617
The Major Sections of a Research Proposal
or Report 617
Sections Unique to Research Reports 624
A Sample Research Proposal 628
Main Points 640
For Review 640
Key Terms 641
For Discussion 641
Notes 641
Appendixes A-1
APPENDIX A Portion of a Table of Random
Numbers A-2
APPENDIX B Selected Values from a Normal Curve
Table A-3
APPENDIX C Chi-Square Distribution A-4
APPENDIX D Using SPSS A-5
Glossary G-1
Index I-1

How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education provides a comprehensive introduction to educational research. The text covers the most widely used research methodologies and discusses each step in the research process in detail. Step-by-step analysis of real research studies provides students with practical examples of how to prepare their work and read that of others. End-of-chapter problem sheets, comprehensive coverage of data analysis, and information on how to prepare research proposals and reports make it appropriate both for courses that focus on doing research and for those that stress how to read and understand research.